birth control
Youth lead youth in Marshall Islands.

Johnson G.

PIP: The promotion of family planning and birth control in Pacific countries is often frustrated by traditional and religious beliefs, if not deterred by tremendous funding and logistics problems. In the central Pacific republic of the Marshall Islands, however, youthful health workers are taking a unique approach to health promotion that has spurred acceptance of the once controversial subjects of family planning and birth control. A group known as Youth to Youth in Health is spearheading a family planning outreach drive in the schools and community in the Marshall Islands. Coupling health presentations with traditional island music and dance to produce lively health shows, the group's programs on family planning, birth control, nutrition, and cancer have struck a responsive chord in a culture known for its religious and traditional conservatism. The group makes creative use of puppet shows, skits, health songs, and pantomimes, interspersed with contemporary renditions of Marshall Islands music and traditional dances. These have rekindled pride in their culture among the group and sparked a sense of urgency about the need to improve health conditions in the islands. As evidence of the group's impact, family planning staff point to a nearly 4-fold rise in the number of youth clients under 19 years since the Youth to Youth started in mid-1986. Their combination of traditional custom with family planning and other health information has proved to be an innovative and needed program for the islands.

Online source: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12269067&dopt=Abstract birth control



birth control
[Carrying out the number seven directive of C.C.C.C.P., spreading comprehensive measures of birth control]

[Article in Chinese]

Lai B.

PIP: This report examines how the Yi Yang District of Hunan Province carried out the Central Commitee of the Chinese Communist Party's No. 7 Directive, i.e., the directive requiring the people of the county to take comrehensive measures, as opposed to single methods, to promote birth control. Yi Yang District officials in charge of Family Planning established a new and comprehensive program promoting birth control, stressing 4 major points: 1) a voluntary policy, 2) suitability of the birth control method, 3) safety, and 4) convenience. Under the voluntary policy they emphasize that people must be free to choose their own means of birth control based upon physical considerations and personal beliefs because compulsory measures are generally resisted. Secondly, the method of birth control must be suitable to the individuals involved. Local family planning agencies have been very effective in helping couples establish medical records and in providing them with practical advice. The third concern of the Yi Yang District officials is with assuring people of the safety of the birth control method chosen in order to eliminate unnecessary fears and anxieties about possible side effects. Finally, they stress that family planning assistance should be made available to people at any time. These family planning measures have proved to be very successful and bring about lasting results.

Online source: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12341134&dopt=Abstract birth control



birth control
[Questionnaire about contraceptive methods]

[Article in Portuguese]

Bastos AC, Rigitano RC, De Barros RD, Fernandes TR.

PIP: 500 sexually active women in Brazil aged 15-50 were interviewed to study their use of contraceptives. For the 350 who used contraceptives, the survey evaluated their level of education, marital status, incidence of pregnancy, and the number of abortions performed. The level of education had little effect on the choice of birth control methods. Women with 1 sex partner were more preoccupied with the use of birth control than women who had casual sex with more than 1 partner. The younger women in the group, whether or not they used birth control, had greater frequency of abortions. The preferred method of contraception was the pill, and of the women who took the pill, almost 1/2 did so without a doctor's prescription. 42% of the same group reportedf suffering side effects due to pill use. Since induced abortions are illegal in Brazil, it is certain that the information given is inaccurate. Other methods of birth control also had drawbacks. The early withdrawal method did nothing for the couple's sexual gratification, and was not an effective method of birth control. The rhythm method was rarely used, and could also be dangerous as far as effectiveness. The IUD, which has proven to be very effective in developed nations, was not widely used by this group because it was considered troublesome. It is clear from this report that all means need to be implemented to make birth control accessible to all levels of the population. Failure to utilize birth control methods on moral or religious grounds will cause an increase in abortions, many of which will be performed by unqualified people. The denial of birth control will lead to disastrous consequences.

Online source: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12341404&dopt=Abstract birth control



birth control
An integration of two fertility analysis frameworks.

Retherford RD.

PIP: The family size preference function approach and the indifference map approach are described and compared to demonstrate the complementarity of these 2 formulations for fertility analysis. The original intent of the family size preference function approach was to use utility-cost concepts to analyze both the effects of economic and social development variables on fertility and the related process of birth control innovation and diffusion. The basic conceptual elements of this approach include: completed family size; birth control cost (including psychic costs) of achieving a completed family size of x children; family size preference function; total utility associated with completed family size of x children; demand for children; demand for children with birth control costs compared; and natural family size. The family size preference function formulation of the framework also can be expressed in terms of indifference maps and budget constraints as used by Easterlin, with some refinements. Again, it is assumed at first that birth control is without cost and there are no restrictions on the potential supply of children. Only 2 goods are considered: children (X) and other goods (G). In the indifference map formulation, demand is determined by the elements of tastes, income, and prices. Once an integrated framework is formulated that includes both a family size preference formulation and an indifference map formulation, it can be compared with Easterlin's original framework. Essentially, the indifference map formulation of the integrated framework is the same as Easterlin's framework. The most important difference is that Easterlin specifies the discontinuity in the budget line but does not specify the parallel discontinuity in tastes. It is important to specify the discontinuity in tastes, because it is needed to explain the role of subjective fixed birth control costs in the analysis of rapid diffusion of birth control and sudden rapid fertility decline. The integrated framework specifies a substantial discontinuity in the subjective costs of birth control, making it possible to analyze the associated phenomena of rapid diffusion of birth control and sudden and rapid fertility decline. By incorporating an alternative formulation of the framework in terms of family size preference functions, it facilitates specification of a formalized threshold condition for birth control and an improved conceptualization of motivation for birth control. Additionally, the integrated framework make a clear and analytically useful distinction between desire and demand for children.

Online source: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12341502&dopt=Abstract birth control



birth control
The "planned" families of Tunisia.

Habchi M.

PIP: 30 years ago Tunisia achieved independence, and 20 years ago it adopted a family planning policy designed to bring about a balance between demographic and economic growth. Birth control and family planning continue to be a major concern, and services now are provided in over 800 public sector centers -- dispensaries, hospitals, family planning clinics, and mobile teams. 4 out of 10 married women use some form of contraception, and some 30,000 abortions are performed per year by services of the National Office for Family Planning and Population. 2/3 of Tunisians believe that religion has a favorable view of birth control, but there are other sources of resistance to birth control -- sources related to a woman's level of education, her status, and socioeconomic level. The average number of children/woman decreases according to her level of education, from 6.9 among illiterate women to 2.6 among women with a university education. The proportion of illiterate women in Tunisia is close to 50%; the level is as high as 75% among women over age 30. These figures provide the explanation as to why the decline in the birthrate has been so slow. Another major determinant of reproduction rates among Tunisian women is access to employment. Women with jobs have an average of 2 children in contract to women without jobs who normally have more than 4 children. A marked decline occurred in the birthrate between 1966-76, and about 2/3 of Tunisian women now subscribe to the modern family model, i.e., a smaller family oriented toward consumption and comfort. Yet, despite improvements, under the best-case scenario the reproduction rate would be 3.8 children/family at 2000, and a rate of 2.9 would not be achieved until 2020, which is still higher than the rate necessary for simple population replacement -- 2.1. This downward trend would be realized under the combined effects of socioeconomic and cultural changes, i.e., better education, urbanization, declining infant mortality, the gradual integration of the rural community into the national economy, and the popularization of birth control methods.

Online source: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12269169&dopt=Abstract birth control



birth control
The international family planning movement.

Donaldson PJ, Tsui AO.

PIP: Over the past 3 decades, the number of women using family planning has increased 6-fold to over 400 million married women of childbearing age. The evolution of behavior and attitudes toward using birth control among third world couples reflects the goals and hard work of an international network of individuals, governments and organizations. This article follows the progression of this movement, from early opposition in developed as well as developing countries, to the present day, when birth control is practiced by a slight majority of the world's women of childbearing age. Among world regions, contraceptive use ranges from about 17% in Africa to 75% in Asia. In some African countries, however, family planning is still a foreign concept, and fewer than 5% of women use any birth control. International organizations played a crucial role in spread of family planning by providing training for developing country professionals, funding actual family planning programs and helping to evaluate programs. But the success of a country's family planning program also was dependent upon a national commitment, and often on a strong socioeconomic setting. The private sector has had a limited role except in some countries, notably in Latin America, but its involvement is likely to expand in the future. Also, as financial support from the US and international organizations wanes, national governments will cover a larger share of the cost. The worldwide increase in the practice of family planning has led to fertility declines in many third world countries, slowing rapid population growth rates. For individuals, family planning has been a liberating influence, allowing them to participate more fully in the shift from traditional to modern society.

Online source: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12342935&dopt=Abstract birth control



birth control
Factors associated with Hispanic teenagers' attitude toward the importance of birth control.

Gibson JW, Lanz JB.

PIP: Attitudes of 240 female Hispanic teenagers in 1984-85 in New York City toward the importance of birth control (ATIBC) are examined as a reflection of the following: demographic factors, educational aspirations, maternal characteristics, religiosity, clarity of longterm goals, and perception of friends' behavior, i.e., the degree, formation, and variation of these factors. The nonrandom sample was recruited from pregnancy prevention classes. The questionnaire was available in English or Spanish. 9 research questions were of interest including whether girls in female-headed households were more likely to be sexually active and have higher ATIBC scores, whether Catholics will have lower ATIBC scores, whether spanish preference speakers have lower ATIBC scores, whether working mothers' children, or more highly educated mothers' children were more sexually active and have higher scores, whether religiosity lowers scores, whether higher educational aspirations increases scores, whether childrens' beliefs that most of the friends use contraceptive is related to higher cores, and whether clearer longterm goals are related to higher scores. The attitude scale was based on Kirby's and Cvetkovich and Grote's work and focused on peer influence, parental attitudes, and strength of intention to use contraceptives. Other measures are identified by specific questions, i.e., clarity of longterm goals is measured by the question: I have a clear idea of where I'm headed in the future, and I know what I want out of life. The results indicated that 4 variables were significantly associated with ATIBC scores: 1) lower scores were associated with teenagers who had mothers with low education (2nd-9th grades), and 2) teenagers who spoke Spanish best; 3) perceived importance of religion was significantly related to lower ATIBC scores such that great importance was related to low scores and little importance was related to high scores; and 4) teenagers' belief about their friends' potential use of birth control was significantly related such that if 75% of friends were thought to use birth control. These 4 predictors (primary language, mother's education, importance of religion, and friends' perceived birth control use) yielded an R of .55 and and R2 = .31. The strongest single predictor is friends' perceived birth control use at 15% and mother's education at 14%.

Online source: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12343807&dopt=Abstract birth control